Field Research
Qualitative research is concerned with understanding and interpreting another person's social world through accessing their lived experiences. Three types of qualitative field research methods are described here that focus on capturing lived experiences: direct observation; participant observation; and qualitative interviews.
Direct Observation
- Data is gathered primarily through close visual inspection of a natural setting
- Rather than actively engaging members of a setting in conversations or interviews, the direct observer strives to be unobtrusive and detached from the setting
- Direct observation is not necessarily an alternative to other types of field methods, such as participant observation or qualitative interviews. Rather, it may be an initial approach to understanding a setting, a group of individuals, or forms of behavior prior to interacting with members or developing interview protocols
Advantage of direct observation:
- It offers contextual data on settings, interactions, or individuals
Disadvantage of direct observation:
- Behaviors observed during direct observation may be unusual or atypical
Forms of data gathered from direct observation:
- The principle form of direct observation is field notes, which detail behaviors, conversations, or setting characteristics as recorded by the researcher
- A complementary or alternative approach is Structured Protocols, which may include a checklist or rating scale
- Photographs or video images are another form of data collected
Direct observation as a research method is most appropriate to open, public settings where anyone has a right to be or congregate. Conducting direct observation in private or closed settings -- without the knowledge or consent of members -- is more likely to raise ethical concerns.
Participant Observation
- A field research method whereby the researcher develops an understanding of the composition of a particular setting or society by taking part in the everyday routines and rituals alongside its members
- Originally developed in the early 20th century by anthropologists researching native societies in developing countries; now employed by researchers studying a range of issues
- The principal research method used by ethnographers -- specialists within the fields of anthropology and sociology who focus on recording the details of social life occurring in a setting, community, or society. The ethnographer, who often lives among the members of the society for months or years, attempts to build trusting relationships so that he or she becomes part of the social setting. As the ethnographer gains the confidence and trust of the members, many will speak and behave in a natural manner in the presence of the ethnographer
Advantage of participant observation:
- The ethnographer develops a rich, "thick" understanding of a setting and of the members within a society
Disadvantages of participant observation:
- The researcher must devote a large amount of time (and money) to develop this complex understanding
- An ethnographer's objectivity may decline as he or she spends more time among the members
Forms of data gathered from participant observation:
- Field notes are the primary type of data. The ethnographer takes notes of observations and experiences and later develops them into detailed, formal field notes
- Frequently, ethnographers keep a diary, which is often a more intimate, informal record of the happenings within the setting
- The practice of participant observation, with its emphasis on developing relationships with members, often leads to informal, conversational interviews and more formal, in-depth interviews. The data from these interviews can become part of field notes or may consist of separate interview transcripts
Ethical issues concerning ethnographic study
A main ethical issue confronting ethnographers is deciding when and how to inform members that they are part of a research study.
- An ethnographer should identify himself or herself as a researcher at the onset of participant observation. A general but forthright description of the aims of the research should be sufficient
- As relationships with members deepen any controversial aspects of the study should be revealed
- An ethnographer must obtain informed consent from any member who agrees to a formal, in depth interview
Qualitative Interviews
Qualitative interviews are a type of field research method that elicits information and data by directly asking questions of members. There are three primary types of qualitative interviews: informal, conversational; semi-structured; standardized, and open-ended.
Informal, Conversational Interviews
- Frequently occur during participant observation or following direct observation
- The researcher begins conversing with a member from a setting. As the conversation unfolds, the researcher formulates specific questions, often spontaneously, and begins asking them informally
- Appropriate when the researcher wants maximum flexibility to pursue topics and ideas as they emerge during the exchange
Advantage of informal interviewing:
- Allows researcher to be responsive to individual differences and to capture emerging information
Disadvantage of informal interviewing:
- May generate less systematic data, which are difficult to classify and analyze
Semi-Structured Interviews
- Involves formally recruiting a member from a setting for the specific purposes of conducting an interview
- Prior to the interview, a list of predetermined questions or probes, also known as an interview guide, are devised so that each interviewee will respond to a similar series of questions
- Questions should be of an open-ended nature to elicit as much detail and meaning from the interviewee as possible
- The researcher is free to pursue and probe other topics as they emerge during the interview
Advantage of semi-structured interviewing:
- Systematically captures data across interviewees
Disadvantage of semi-structured interviewing:
- Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to new topics that unfold during the interview
Standardized, Open-Ended Interviews
- Similar to a survey since questions are carefully scripted and written prior to the interview, which serves to minimize variability in question wording
- The researcher asks a uniform series of questions in the same order to each interviewee.
- The questions are open-ended to capture individual differences across interviewees
- Particularly appropriate for qualitative studies involving multiple interviewers
Advantage of standardized interviewing:
- Enables comparability across interviewees
Disadvantage of standardized interviewing:
- Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to new topics that unfold during the interview
Both standard and semi-structured interviews are typically tape-recorded and should begin with obtaining informed consent from the interviewee prior to starting the interview. Additionally, the researcher may write a separate field note to describe the member's reactions to the interview, or events that occurred before or after the interview.
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